page 40 • The analysis for this report was limited to considering energy system benefits and does not capture the wide range of customer benefits enabled by the infrastructure needed to support true-smart charging and V2G. • Customer benefits related to bulk system savings and distribution-level avoided capital costs will be shaped by VGI program design, which will need a means of passing savings back to the participating vehicle owners. This aspect of program design will be a critical consideration for scaling VGI. • A key form of savings to be mediated through VGI program design is the savings from true-smart charging, which attempts to move charging to periods with low-cost electricity supply, potentially utilizing renewable energy that might be curtailed in the absence of V1G. V1G will lower charging costs for the system as well as individual consumers. • V2G participation may enable direct customer benefits of backup power. The resiliency benefit of V2G enabling infrastructure could provide backup power from the EV’s battery, could directly benefit for some customers, particularly with the increasing prevalence of Public Safety Power Shutoffs in various parts of California. Direct customer benefits will be a significant factor in VGI adoption